Apart from the fact that Fribourg had never dealt in onions, the chronicles of Bern show no such event for 1405 of the following years. Rather, the feast of St. Martin held on a single day was expanded over time to fill two whole weeks. Martini, as the day is known in Switzerland, was a time to mark the passing of summer into autumn and free of work for everyone. And the market offered all the goods you might want to stock for the coming winter.

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The market attracts over 700 merchants every year which put up their stands during the night and start selling before the break of dawn. Officially the market opens at 6 a.m., but selling starts at 4 o’clock. The local population is usually long home when at nine the first busloads of tourists arrive. And they arrive all day long, ten thousands of people.

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Though the Queen of Wistenlach has lost her predominance over the market, still more than one third of stands sell the golden skinned onion together with her red skinned royal cousin. The rest is given over to clothes, sweets, cheese, and whatever you may think of peddling at the market.

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The market is the last of the kermes, after that the Christmas markets will hold sway. The day is given over to the market and its stand, but after the schools close, it takes on a carnival air, when dressed up people will roam the streets, singers will go from restaurant to restaurant singing satirical songs about what has happened over the last year, and satirical newspapers will be distributed to the visitors.

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The most important part of the day for kids starts at 4 p.m.: the great confetti battle. He general battle held mainly by kids with little paper shreds (almost everything is allowed to get anybody as full of shreds as possible) usually heralds the end of the selling market and the start of the evening’s festivities.

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The traditional food for the day is obviously the local onion pie or the local cheese pie, though meanwhile you’ll find any kind of sustenance at the market. With it you might drink spiced hot wine or cold local wines.

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 Monastery of Batalha, façade.

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Batalha monastery with the statue of Nuno Alvares Pereira.

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The Dominican abbey of Santa Maria da Vitoria in Batalha, celebrating the Victory of Aljubarrota in 1385 is the masterpiece of Rayonnant Gothic Style in Portugal. Dom Joao had made a wish to erect a sumptuous church dedicated to the Virgin if he won the battle. The works expanded from 1388 to 1517 in the Late Gothic Style intermingled with the Manueline decoration. The architect Afonso Domingues, followed in 1402 by David Huguet used the Rayonnant Gothic influenced by the English Perpendicular Style of York Minster, Joao had married Philippa of Lancaster who introduced English architects. Huguet then introduced the Flamboyant Gothic, raising the height of the nave, which makes it look even narrower. He could not finished the works so we still have the so-called, but magnificent, Imperfect Chapels. During the following two centuries, various kings continued the works: the son of Joao, King Duarte, ordered a pantheon behind the apse, and the Manueline decorations were then added. The abbey still has a military role, two unknown soldiers of World War I rest in the Chapter House whose star vault by Huguet and stained glass windows really are exceptional.

     Monastery of Batalha, the Royal Cloisters.

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In the Founder’s Chapel, Dom Joao I and Philippa of Lancaster, are resting hand in hand. The tomb was began in 1426 by David Huguet and finished in 1434. Their son, Henry the Navigator also was buried here under the octagon stellar vault.

Remarkable stellar vault in the Founder’s Chapel.

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Tomb of Joao I and Philippa of Lancaster.

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Fountain (1450) in the Monks Lavatory.

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The Imperfect Chapels ordered by King Duarte is an unfinished mausoleum.  The motto of King Manuel I , who did not continue the works, is repeated two hundred times on the walls. The homage to King Duarte says: “Leauté faray tam yaserei” (I will always be loyal). 

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The sumptuous Manueline Portal of the Imperfect Chapels sculpted in 1509 by M. Fernandes.

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Outside of the Imperfect Chapels.

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The Royal Cloister is ascribed to various architects and the famous Diogo Boitac gave the intricate tracery of the arcades featuring the Cross of the Order of Christ, armillary spheres, pearls, lotus flowers, seashells and all sorts of exotic vegetation as well as tree stumps. There is a stark contrast with the sober and simple Cloister of Alfonso V.  During the Napoleonic Wars, Marshall Masséna, and his troops, facing the religious fanaticism, unfortunately caused great damage to the Monastery of Batalha in 1810-1811 and namely opened certain tombs and threw the royal remains away. In 1840, King Ferdinand II restored the ruined buildings from where the Dominicans had been expelled in 1834. The edifice became a national monument in 1907 and listed by UNESCO a world heritage site in 1983. It is a museum since 1980. The abbey still has a military role, two unknown soldiers of World war I rest in the Chapter House.

Manueline décor with intricate arcade screens in the Royal Cloister of King Joao I.

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Carved traceries in the Royal Cloister.

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The Monastery of Batalha where Flamboyant Gothic architecture is intermingled with Manueline Style.

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Please check out also my related article: http://trifter.com/europe/portugal/the-knights-templar-castle-in-tomar/

On a hill overlooking an attractive stretch of the River Thames, stands the high-steepled church of St. Michael and All Angels, in the Oxfordshire village of Clifton Hampden.  And although the greater part of the present church is the result of Victorian ‘restoration fever’, there is historical evidence to suggest that a church has stood on the spot since well before the 12th century.

Some parts of the original medieval village church still exist inside the building, dating back to around the time of King Stephen who was the grandson of William the Conqueror.  Examples of the architecture from that time include the large square bases of two pillars, a piscina that once held holy water for making the sign of the cross and a carved crosslet in the lower part of a substantial stone pillar. 

A unique and fascinating artefact that also survived from around the 12th century is set into the south wall of the south chapel.  Believed to have been above the door of the original medieval church, it is a stone carving depicting a medieval boar hunt.

The baptismal font is attractive and richly decorated but relatively new in historical terms.  However, the church did at one time possess an ancient lead font until, in 1797, in what can only be described as a sheer act of vandalism, it was melted down by the churchwarden of the time, John Ridge, who then proceeded to use the lead to help repair the roof.  Quite rightly he was ‘invited to resign’.

For whatever reason, by 1843 the church had deteriorated to such an extent that only substantial restoration would save the building from being lost forever.  George Gilbert Scott, the celebrated architect responsible for, amongst other things, St. Pancras railway station in London and the Albert Memorial outside Buckingham Palace, was commissioned to save it.  Funds for the project were provided from a legacy from the late George Henry Gibbs, (whose tomb is inside the church), his widow and his son.  A second phase of restoration took place in the years 1864 to 1867 when a new organ was installed, three Gothic windows were introduced into the north wall and the chancel was re-fitted with stalls for the choir.

Outside, the churchyard of St. Michael and All Angels is interesting in its own right.  The steps leading up to the carved wooden lych-gate, and the churchyard itself, start from a deeply-hollowed lane that was once part of a coaching road that ran through the village from Dorchester-on-Thames.

At one point the churchyard was actually part of a farm, thereby bringing about the necessity to have all burials transported to nearby Dorchester-on-Thames.  In 1819 however, the land was given as a gift to the church by Anne Noyes, her sister and Elizabeth Drake, finally allowing the residents of Clifton Hampden to be buried in their own village.

On the subject of burials, there are two graves at Clifton Hampden that are of particular interest.  The first is that of William Dyke.  Dyke, at the time a 20 year-old private in the 1st Foot Guards (later to become the Grenadier Guards), accidentally fired the very first shot in the Battle of Waterloo of 1815.  The second is that of John Shannon DSO DFC RAAF, a 20 year-old squadron leader who, as a member of one of bomber crew, survived the ‘Dam Busters Raid’ over Germany in 1943.

One other item is worth a small mention with regard to the churchyard.  At the east end is a Cedar tree.  It was brought back from the Lebanon in 1864 by John Lomax Gibbs and grown entirely from seed. 

The Victorian façade of St. Michael and All Angels is only one small part of the timeline of its historical past.  How many other age-old secrets are yet to be revealed?

Other village churches in the series include: Charwelton (Northamptonshire),

Carlisle has changed beyond recognition during the past 20 years. It has gone from being a friendly little City to a busy, noisy environment like many of England’s other larger cities. However, it is still small in comparison with most.

Although I say it is a small city, which it is in terms of the actual inner city area, it is also the largest city in England because the city boundaries extend so far in all directions.

Carlisle is still somewhat cut off from the rest of the country in that it has no international airport. There have been plans to extend the existing local airport, but these have never got off the ground. So, if you want to fly in you have to go to Newcastle and use the train, or drive across the 90 mile gap to Carlisle. The other options are Glasgow or Manchester airports.

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There is the main railway line running throuh the centre, but train times are very restricted and if you want to travel late at night, or on a Sunday, you will find that there are few trains if any. For example, if you want to get to Preston on a Sunday you cannot travel until after 2pm. So, we are fairly well cut off from the rest of the country where transport is concerned.

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The City used to be a network of small shopping lanes, but now these have been knocked down and there is a large shopping centre in their place. Names like Long Lane, Globe Lane and Drovers Lane still exist and are a tribute to their heritage but the ultra modern New Lanes Shopping centre now stands on the site of the Old Lanes. Here there is a whole range of modern shops like Debenhams, HMV, Next, New Look, H&M, Faith, Quiz, etc. There is however, no supermarket in the Lanes. You have to go across the road to Marks and Spencer or Tesco for this.

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Apart from a range of shops, Carlisle has a cathedral which boasts the largest stained glass window in Britain, a Castle, and a number of historic buildings including the Prior’s Ceiling (at the Cathedral) The Guildhall and The Citadel. It is only a few miles from Hadrian’s Wall and parts of that structure are visible just a few miles away. Tullie House is a Jacobean Mansion which houses the museum and art gallery and is surrounded by historic gardens including a herb garden and a Roman Well.

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Various plaques in the City centre commemorate important historical events and eras. For example, there is a list of charges to made for entrance into the city which is attached to the old north gate. It lists various animals at 1d each and Scotsman at 2d each. At the bottom is a note that reminds visitors that Scotsmen must leave the City before nightfall.

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On the wall near the Citadel there is a plaque commemorating the last hanging in England and beneath the Town Hall in the square, you will find England’s first Victorian red pillar box.

Accommodation is easily found in Carlisle, with a choice of many hotels including the Ibis, Crown and Mitre, Lakes Court hotel and others in the town centre, depending on your preference and pocket.

Gretna Green is just a short drive away and Robert The Bruce’s Cave on the Scottish side of the border is another popular tourist spot. Out to the west is the Solway Firth with its mud flats, sand dunes and spectacular bird life.

Carlisle has everything you need including many nightspots and clubs and restaurants grouped together on the southern side of the city centre. You can find plenty of interest in and around the City Centre, and access to the lake District is easy by bus coach, train, or car.

It seems strangely mysterious when first seen that the impressive and substantial village church of Charwelton, between Banbury and Daventry in the Northamptonshire countryside, stands virtually on its own in a sea of grass almost a mile away from the village that it serves.

 However, the answer to the apparent mystery of the lonely village church is unfortunately an unromantic one.  Nevertheless, its story in terms of social history is an interesting one.

 Up until the end of the 15th century – around 1490 – two villages once stood in the area; a busy, thriving community known as Little Charwelton (later to be known as Church Charwelton), and the other known as Great Charwelton (later to be called Town Charwelton, and nowadays simply as Charwelton), the village that presently stands on the busy A361 Banbury to Daventry road.  From 1490 onwards the population of Little Charwelton suddenly began to reduce at a dramatic rate.  So much so that within a few short years it was completely and utterly deserted.

 The village up to this point was prosperous.  It contained a number of well-known and popular inns used frequently by coach travellers from Warwick and surrounding areas on their way to London.  In its time the main thoroughfare through the village was a busy one.

 So why did prosperous Little Charwelton become just another deserted medieval village?

 As is often the case in history, a number of suggestions have been put forward as to the reason for the demise of the village.  One school of thought maintains that it was destroyed by the Black Death, (1348-49), or the Great Plague as it was known.  Others state that the building of the medieval packhorse bridge, (which still stands at the roadside to this day), built in the 14th century on the Banbury – Daventry road, made Great Charwelton village made better business sense as traffic on this road increased, prompting the innkeepers and trades people of Little Charwelton to move villages. 

 But, another theory that probably has the most credibility is this one. 

 Just before the decline of Little Charwelton, sheep farming became extremely popular all over the Midlands, resulting in huge profits being made from trading in wool compared with lower profits from the sale of crops.  The landowner, who would have turned his land over to flocks of grazing sheep with only a couple of shepherds to employ, would simply have thrown the villagers, the majority of whom worked in the surrounding fields, out of their little cottages.  Every single building would then have been destroyed. 

The occupants had no rights whatsoever under English law, and would simply have been left to fend for themselves as best they could.  This theory, as harsh as it may sound, is borne out by the fact that this type of land clearance became the fate of hundreds of villages across England at that time, particularly within the Midlands area.

 Sadly there is little to show today that there was ever a village in front of Charwelton church, except for a few lumps and bumps in the ground.  But, by looking a little closer at the bumps, the area will give offer a tantalising glimpse of its past history. 

 Slightly raised areas of grass can clearly be seen where the bases of cottages and other buildings once stood.  Between some of these raised areas, narrow pathways that once ran between buildings are just visible as slight depressions in the ground.  But the most impressive aspect of the former village is the remains of that once-busy main road, running the complete length of the village, represented now as a deep, wide, grassy depression in the ground, worn into its present shape by centuries of use.

 Charwelton church itself dedicated as the Church of the Holy Trinity, and one of the finest in the area, has been a place of worship for at least 800 years, and records show that there was a religious building on the site soon after the Norman Conquest of 1066.  The church, with its sturdy tower and surrounded by its ancient churchyard exudes an air of strength and infinite longevity.

 An interesting facet on the outside of the building, on a south-facing buttress, is the presence of a circular scratch or mass dial.  Much smaller than the common sundial it is marked with lines etched into the stonework radiating outwards from the centre showing the times of the various religious services during the day.  A tangible reminder from the days when all churches in England belonged to the Catholic faith.

 Inside the church, after passing through the 12th century doorway, are memorials to the landowners of the time such as Thomas Andrewes, a wealthy merchant who died in 1496, and of the Knightley family who were influential throughout Northamptonshire.  These landowners, or ‘Lords of the Manor’ as they were more commonly known, would have been responsible for providing money for the upkeep of the church building and for the paying of the priest’s salary.

There is also a list of rectors’ names covering the period from 1221 to 1961 on display in the church.

 The baptismal font, near to which hangs a brass portrait of the 1468 rector William Smarte, is richly decorated with carvings of roses and oak leaves and dates from the 15th century; the wooden, canopied pulpit is Jacobean; the altar rails are 17th century; the candelabra is Dutch and the lectern is made from Spanish chestnut.  The church also contains an old parish chest made from solid oak that once held all the parish records.

 This beautiful church is well-worth visiting, and it would be hard to find a more charming and peaceful place in the whole of the Northamptonshire countryside than – the village church that stands in the middle of nowhere.

 Other English Village Churches in this series include: Clifton Hampden (Oxfordshire),

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The counts must have been an extraordinary set of rulers, one after the other. They are commemorated to this day by the Cenotaph in the La Collégiale church. In every legend, myth or story that refers to the counts of Neuchatel, they are called ‘the good counts of Neuchatel’. The last count died childless in 1288, and Emperor Rudolf I of Habsburg handed the county to the Count of Chalon.

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What started out with a deed of gift to a queen continued as a story of inheritances. The county of Neuchatel passed from Chalon to the Counts of Freiburg, the Margraves of Baden, the Royal House of Orleans, and finally to the Prince-Electors of Brandenburg and Kings in Prussia. The county was made a principality under the Orleans family. As the last transfer to the Prussians was done under pressure from the Swiss Confederation against 14 other contenders for the inheritance, Neuchatel was declared an independent principality (i.e. not part of Prussia) on the insistence of Louis XIV of France.

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As the Counts of Neuchatel had been gifted in administering the county, all families following them into the administration shared one common policy; they just confirmed the existing laws and administration and didn’t bother too much about any details. The Counts of Chalon concluded a treaty with the Swiss Confederation in 1306, leading to Neuchatel becoming a de facto part of the Swiss Confederation without being a member of it. This finally led to the curious situation of Neuchatel becoming a member of democratic Switzerland in 1848 while still being governed by the Prussian Kings as Princes.

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To this day, a Swiss citizen is not addressed as citizen, but as ‘Miteidgenosse’ (translates to ‘fellow oath taker’). After the Prussians took over, the King of Prussia was forthwith addressed as ‘our fellow oath taker’ up to his formal abdication as Prince in 1857. But it needed the good services of Emperor Napoleon III of France to bring that about without Switzerland and Prussia going to war. Things came to a head as Neuchatel’s citizens had passed a Republican constitution on becoming part of Switzerland, but Royalist elements had tried to overthrow the new government and declare Neuchatel independent.

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The Principality became part of France in 1795 for a short time as the Prussian ceded their rights to it to Napoleon. But the Vienna Congress of 1815 compounded the anachronism by designating it ‘a Canton of Switzerland and Prussian Principality’. When the Swiss Republics subsequently joined into the United States of Switzerland, the situation became nothing short of ridiculous.

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Neuchatel is a French speaking town. By general consent, it is The French Speaking City, actually. Anybody who intends to learn properly spoken French in all its beauty is sent to Neuchatel to do so, as they speak it without a hint of accent, as opposed to French cities that all have their peculiarities and accents. Famous people associated with Neuchatel are writer Friedrich Durrenmatt, Prussian General Bernard de Gelieu, failed Hitler assassin Maurice Bavaud, and musician Robert Miles.

For further information on the city of Neuchatel you may want to go to the official homepage of the city government neuchatelville.ch.

  The castle of Tomar with the Convent of Christ inside.

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Tomar was chosen in 1156 as headquarters of the Order of the Knights Templar and the Convent of Christ was founded in 1162. Gualdim Pais, the third Grand Master erected a keep on top of the hill. It will then be completed by a 16-side polygonal rotunda called “Charola”. This was the oratory of the Order in the XIIth century and the heart of the monastery. Its plan was inspired by the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem and the Mosque of Omar. The inside presents a central octogonal structure with altars all around.

The rotunda as seen from the outside. On the left, the Manueline church.

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The inner decoration of the rotunda, added in 1499 by King Manuel I, reflects the wealth of the Order of Christ whose headquarters are located in Tomar in 1356. The magnificent paintings and frescoes of the XVIth century featuring biblical scenes as well as the statues under the cupola were very carefully restored.

Inside of the rotunda.

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Under Henry the Navigator, Grand Master in 1418, cloisters were constructed between the rotunda and the Knights Templar stronghold. King Manuel I had the nave of the church rebuilt in a late Gothic/Renaissance style that bears his name: Manueline style. The architects Joao de Castillo and Diego de Arruda decorated the church and cloisters with a profusion of unprecedented Manueline decorations culminating in the Chapter House Window. This amazing window brims over with abundant motifs of ropes, chains, octopus and corals, all recalling the Age of Discoveries. It is even topped with the cross of the Order of Christ whilst two armillary spheres can be seen on each side and the architect underneath the window.

The famous Chapter House Manueline window.

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The eight cloisters show the evolution of art in Tomar. The Cloister of Dom Joao III by Diego de Torralva is the masterpiece of Mannerist style in Portugal and reflects the passion of the King for Italian art. The monks could reach the church trough the dormitory. The works began in 1557 and ended in 1591. 

Cloister of Dom Joao III.

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Cloister of the Cemetery where the tomb of the brother of Vasco da Gama can be found. It is decorated with “azulejos”, typical blue tiles of the XVIth century.

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The symbolic Portal of the Manueline church.

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On the East bank of the Nabao River, the Gothic church of Santa Maria do Olival (XIIth century) houses the tomb of Gualdim Pais who died in 1195, and other Grand Masters of the Order of Temple. A secret passageway is said to connect the edifice to the castle. It used to be the mother church of seafarers at the Age of Discoveries. It is in 1834 that the Order of Christ was extinguished. The Convent of Christ in Tomar is the most visited monument in Portugal and listed a World Heritage site since 1983.

Nuremberg, in Germany, is host to a world famous Christmas market. The Christmas market is, you guessed it, a street market associated with Christmas. Whether you celebrate Christmas religiously, commercially or you just enjoy the season the market in Nuremberg will appeal to your inner child and alight your soul with wonder. For a winter travel idea look no further.

From the 27th of November to the 24th of December every year, the middle of Nuremberg is filled with around 180 wooden stalls bathed in festive decorations and offering various treats and crafts. The aroma of spiced cinnamon floats around stalls full of wonderful delights. It’s a great place to pick up a few presents or even some decorations for the home. I can guarantee the stalls will catch your eye.

The market staff compete with each other for the most beautiful and tasteful design. It’s a treat which promises not to disappoint. There are many traditional meals to enjoy along with copious piles of sugar soaked sweets. Mugs of mulled wine are available at every turn and a non-alcoholic version is available.

There is something, I’m going to say it, magical about the place. Even if you don’t celebrate Christmas the air and the intensity of Christmas cheer there is just inspiring.

The Christmas markets have been celebrated since the middle ages and cities all over the world are now hosting their own. So you don’t need to go as far as Nuremberg but it’s worthwhile if you can spare the extra cash.

You could spend a week in Nuremberg seeing the cities many wonders during the day or even just go for a day trip and enjoy the market. My trip there was the only time I saw an aeroplane treated as a coach bus.

“You can leave your coats and bags on the plane if you’d like,” The hostess told us. “The pilot will be on the plane.” They even held a raffle on the flight back.

We spent a few hours wandering around the city until the market opened and we were there until they dragged us back to the plane. Whether you’re looking for a getaway with the family or a festive day out for two, Nuremberg will not disappoint. You’re only problem will be not wanting to leave against afterwards.

In the 13th century, especially when the Bruce family took up the crown, the castle changed hands between the Scots and the English every few years. The frequent sieges did a lot of damage and it is therefore not too surprising that no buildings from that time survive. Stirling Castle as we see it today is a product of the 16th century. James IV, James V, Marie of Guise, and James VI took it in turns to add, replace, and embellish the building as a truly Royal residence.

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The history of the Royal house of Scotland is one of social climbing. Scottish Royalty was regarded as second rate by the leading monarchies and they were treated like the poor cousins by the kings of England. The frequent marriages into the Royal houses of France were aimed at bettering their acceptance in the European pecking order, and helped the French in aggravating the English more than once.

After James VI became King of England, he moved to London and converted Stirling into barracks, whereby the former Royal Hall became a stable. Talk about social climbing! The castle was used in this way until 1964. In 1930, restoration work started on the Chapel Royal, and since the military left the premises in 1964, major restoration and rebuilding work has been ongoing to recreate the castle to how it looked as residence of the Scottish kings.

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As part of this restoration, the wooden ceiling panels in the Royal bedchamber built by James V. The room was described at the time as the most sumptuous room in Europe and was another ploy to gain acceptance as part of the leading monarchies in Europe. The artisan entrusted with copying the wooden panels noticed a deviation in the 20th panel when he started working on it. Around the edge of the portrait of an unknown woman he found an embellishment that reminded him more of a code than just a whimsy of the original artist.

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Analysis of the markings consisting of 0, I, and II marks revealed it to be a musical annotation similar to Welsh musical annotations of the 1560s. The panels predate the Welsh musical scores by a generation. The annotations are not a precise musical score as we would read it today for Bach or Mozart, but rather a guiding ground sequence on which the Renaissance musicians would improvise or play variations thereof. A modern equivalent of this may be found in Jazz music.

This system of annotating musical scores was given up during the 17th century replaced by the musical scores we still use. The game of playing variations of a well known tune did not die out with it; one famous collection of later variations was composed and written down by Christoph Emmanuel Bach, one of the many musical Bach children on a French song called “Ah, que je vous dirai, Madame.” The tune of which, by the way, is still a favourite children song in German speaking countries.

To get your eyes on the room, the ceiling, and the code you’ll have to be patient. The restoration of Royal bedchamber and presence room (an antechamber to the bedroom where court favourites were received by the monarch) will take until 2011 to complete.

The claims of historians, reported just about in any media I could find, that these annotations are the oldest musical annotations found in Scotland are dubious, as there seem to be musical scores integrated into Rosslyn Chapel predating Stirling’s by several centuries.

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As this proved to be a severe interruption of trade routes between the Swiss Confederacy in the north and the Italian states in the south, the Swiss stepped in and drove the French out of the cities between the Alps and Milan, annexing the lands as a joint dependency of all Swiss Confederate states in 1513. In a singularly arrogant gesture, they razed the castle at Lugano for being too expensive to keep it running. But having the most fearsome and best organized army at the time, their reputation was enough to keep Lugano safe for over 200 years.

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When it was getting clear in 1796 that Switzerland would inevitably become part of Napoleon’s conquests, the Swiss Confederacy gave the citizens south of the Alps their freedom, erected a Republic and accepted them into the confederation as a partner of equal rights. With this move, they swayed Napoleon from integrating the lands into Italy; instead it became part of the Helvetic Republic. After Napoleons defeat, the Ticino, the Italian speaking Republic followed the other Swiss states into independence, a new Confederation, and eventually in 1848 into the United States of Switzerland.

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In the 19th century, Lugano was a hot spot for members of the Italian Risorgimento. The members of this movement regularly used Lugano as their stay for exile when things were getting too hot to handle at home while Italy was trying to unify. At the same time, the city developed its main industry, tourism. Exploiting its extraordinary combination of beauty spots and climate, tourism is still the mainstay of the economy, apart from the usual Swiss vice, banking.

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 The coat of arms of Lugano is a simple white cross on red ground with four letters in the quadrants: LVGA. While these letters quite obviously constitute the first four letters of the city name (V being the Roman way of writing the modern U), some extraordinary theories have sprung up in this connection. One theory links the letters to Legio V Gallia Alpina, thereby giving the city a Roman connotation. The only source linking the fifth legion to Lugano I could find is in fact the reverse argument based on these selfsame letters in the coat of arms. Sort of the cat that bites its tail.

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The city is dominated by mountains, the Bré Mountain (a pleonasm, as Bre derives from the Celtic word for mountain), Mount San Salvatore (Saint Saviour Mountain) and the Verità Mountain (the mountain of Truth). On the other side you find the Lake of Lugano, a lake shared between Switzerland and Italy. Ferry services connect all the major towns on the lake in Switzerland and Italy.

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The language spoken in town (as opposed to what I put in the title) is Lombardic (the Lombard tribes were part of the same movement as the Allemannic and German tribes after the downfall of the Roman Empire), but the official and written language is Italian. Famous people connected with the city include German writer Hermann Hesse, UN chief attorney Carla Del Ponte, human rights specialist Dick Marty, and a complete who is who of the Italian Risorgimento. The people of Lugano are never subjected to fun by the other Swiss as everybody is just glad to get there into the sun.

For further information on the city of Lugano you may want to go to the official homepage of the city government lugano.ch.

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